This heuristic favors the instruction that is less dependent on the last instruction scheduled. Enable the dependent-count heuristic in the scheduler. This heuristic favors the instruction that has more instructions depending on it. Modulo scheduling is performed before traditional scheduling. If a loop is modulo scheduled, later scheduling passes may change its schedule. Use this option to control that behavior. Schedule instructions using selective scheduling algorithm.

Selective scheduling runs instead of the first scheduler pass. Selective scheduling runs instead of the second scheduler pass. Enable software pipelining of innermost loops during selective scheduling. This option has no effect unless one of -fselective-scheduling or -fselective-scheduling2 is turned on.

When pipelining loops during selective scheduling, also pipeline outer loops. This option has no effect unless -fsel-sched-pipelining is turned on. Some object formats, like ELF, allow interposing of symbols by the dynamic linker. This means that for symbols exported from the DSO, the compiler cannot perform interprocedural propagation, inlining and other optimizations in anticipation that the function or variable in question may change.

While this feature is useful, for example, to rewrite memory allocation functions by a debugging implementation, it is expensive in the terms of code quality.

With -fno-semantic-interposition the compiler assumes that if interposition happens for functions the overwriting function will have precisely the same semantics and side effects. Similarly if interposition happens for variables, the constructor of the variable will be the same.

The flag has no effect for functions explicitly declared inline where it is never allowed for interposition to change semantics and for symbols explicitly declared weak.

Emit function prologues only before parts of the function that need it, rather than at the top of the function. This flag is enabled by default at -O and higher. Shrink-wrap separate parts of the prologue and epilogue separately, so that those parts are only executed when needed.

This option is on by default, but has no effect unless -fshrink-wrap is also turned on and the target supports this. Enable allocation of values to registers that are clobbered by function calls, by emitting extra instructions to save and restore the registers around such calls. Such allocation is done only when it seems to result in better code. This option is always enabled by default on certain machines, usually those which have no call-preserved registers to use instead.

Tracks stack adjustments pushes and pops and stack memory references and then tries to find ways to combine them. Use caller save registers for allocation if those registers are not used by any called function.

In that case it is not necessary to save and restore them around calls. This is only possible if called functions are part of same compilation unit as current function and they are compiled before it. Attempt to minimize stack usage. The compiler attempts to use less stack space, even if that makes the program slower. This option implies setting the large-stack-frame parameter to and the large-stack-frame-growth parameter to Perform code hoisting. Code hoisting tries to move the evaluation of expressions executed on all paths to the function exit as early as possible.

This is especially useful as a code size optimization, but it often helps for code speed as well. This flag is enabled by default at -O2 and higher. Perform partial redundancy elimination PRE on trees. This flag is enabled by default at -O2 and -O3. Make partial redundancy elimination PRE more aggressive.

This flag is enabled by default at -O3. Perform forward propagation on trees. This flag is enabled by default at -O1 and higher. Perform full redundancy elimination FRE on trees. The difference between FRE and PRE is that FRE only considers expressions that are computed on all paths leading to the redundant computation.

This analysis is faster than PRE, though it exposes fewer redundancies. Perform hoisting of loads from conditional pointers on trees. This pass is enabled by default at -O1 and higher. Speculatively hoist loads from both branches of an if-then-else if the loads are from adjacent locations in the same structure and the target architecture has a conditional move instruction.

Perform copy propagation on trees. This pass eliminates unnecessary copy operations. Discover which functions are pure or constant. Enabled by default at -O1 and higher. Discover which static variables do not escape the compilation unit. Discover read-only, write-only and non-addressable static variables. Perform interprocedural pointer analysis and interprocedural modification and reference analysis.

This option can cause excessive memory and compile-time usage on large compilation units. It is not enabled by default at any optimization level. Perform interprocedural profile propagation. The functions called only from cold functions are marked as cold. Also functions executed once such as cold , noreturn , static constructors or destructors are identified. Cold functions and loop less parts of functions executed once are then optimized for size.

This optimization analyzes the side effects of functions memory locations that are modified or referenced and enables better optimization across the function call boundary. Perform interprocedural constant propagation. This optimization analyzes the program to determine when values passed to functions are constants and then optimizes accordingly.

This optimization can substantially increase performance if the application has constants passed to functions. This flag is enabled by default at -O2 , -Os and -O3.

It is also enabled by -fprofile-use and -fauto-profile. Perform function cloning to make interprocedural constant propagation stronger. When enabled, interprocedural constant propagation performs function cloning when externally visible function can be called with constant arguments. When enabled, perform interprocedural bitwise constant propagation.

This flag is enabled by default at -O2 and by -fprofile-use and -fauto-profile. It requires that -fipa-cp is enabled. When enabled, perform interprocedural propagation of value ranges. This flag is enabled by default at -O2.

Perform Identical Code Folding for functions and read-only variables. The optimization reduces code size and may disturb unwind stacks by replacing a function by equivalent one with a different name.

The optimization works more effectively with link-time optimization enabled. If a function is patched, its impacted functions should be patched too. Usually, the more IPA optimizations enabled, the larger the number of impacted functions for each function.

In order to control the number of impacted functions and more easily compute the list of impacted function, IPA optimizations can be partially enabled at two different levels. Only enable inlining and cloning optimizations, which includes inlining, cloning, interprocedural scalar replacement of aggregates and partial inlining. Only enable inlining of static functions. As a result, when patching a static function, all its callers are impacted and so need to be patched as well.

When -flive-patching is specified without any value, the default value is inline-clone. Note that -flive-patching is not supported with link-time optimization -flto. Detect paths that trigger erroneous or undefined behavior due to dereferencing a null pointer.

Isolate those paths from the main control flow and turn the statement with erroneous or undefined behavior into a trap. This flag is enabled by default at -O2 and higher and depends on -fdelete-null-pointer-checks also being enabled. This is not currently enabled, but may be enabled by -O2 in the future. Perform forward store motion on trees. Perform sparse conditional bit constant propagation on trees and propagate pointer alignment information. This pass only operates on local scalar variables and is enabled by default at -O1 and higher, except for -Og.

It requires that -ftree-ccp is enabled. Perform sparse conditional constant propagation CCP on trees. This pass only operates on local scalar variables and is enabled by default at -O1 and higher.

Propagate information about uses of a value up the definition chain in order to simplify the definitions. For example, this pass strips sign operations if the sign of a value never matters. The flag is enabled by default at -O1 and higher.

Perform pattern matching on SSA PHI nodes to optimize conditional code. This pass is enabled by default at -O1 and higher, except for -Og. Perform conversion of simple initializations in a switch to initializations from a scalar array. Look for identical code sequences. When found, replace one with a jump to the other.

This optimization is known as tail merging or cross jumping. The compilation time in this pass can be limited using max-tail-merge-comparisons parameter and max-tail-merge-iterations parameter. Perform dead code elimination DCE on trees. Perform conditional dead code elimination DCE for calls to built-in functions that may set errno but are otherwise free of side effects. This flag is enabled by default at -O2 and higher if -Os is not also specified. Assume that a loop with an exit will eventually take the exit and not loop indefinitely.

This allows the compiler to remove loops that otherwise have no side-effects, not considering eventual endless looping as such. This also performs jump threading to reduce jumps to jumps.

Perform dead store elimination DSE on trees. A dead store is a store into a memory location that is later overwritten by another store without any intervening loads. In this case the earlier store can be deleted. Perform loop header copying on trees. This is beneficial since it increases effectiveness of code motion optimizations. It also saves one jump. It is not enabled for -Os , since it usually increases code size. Perform loop optimizations on trees. Perform loop nest optimizations.

Same as -floop-nest-optimize. To use this code transformation, GCC has to be configured with --with-isl to enable the Graphite loop transformation infrastructure. Enable the identity transformation for graphite.

For every SCoP we generate the polyhedral representation and transform it back to gimple. Some minimal optimizations are also performed by the code generator isl, like index splitting and dead code elimination in loops. Enable the isl based loop nest optimizer.

This is a generic loop nest optimizer based on the Pluto optimization algorithms. It calculates a loop structure optimized for data-locality and parallelism.

This option is experimental. Use the Graphite data dependence analysis to identify loops that can be parallelized. Parallelize all the loops that can be analyzed to not contain loop carried dependences without checking that it is profitable to parallelize the loops. While transforming the program out of the SSA representation, attempt to reduce copying by coalescing versions of different user-defined variables, instead of just compiler temporaries.

This may severely limit the ability to debug an optimized program compiled with -fno-var-tracking-assignments. In the negated form, this flag prevents SSA coalescing of user variables.

This option is enabled by default if optimization is enabled, and it does very little otherwise. Attempt to transform conditional jumps in the innermost loops to branch-less equivalents. The intent is to remove control-flow from the innermost loops in order to improve the ability of the vectorization pass to handle these loops. This is enabled by default if vectorization is enabled. Perform loop distribution. This flag can improve cache performance on big loop bodies and allow further loop optimizations, like parallelization or vectorization, to take place.

For example, the loop. Perform loop distribution of patterns that can be code generated with calls to a library. This flag is enabled by default at -O2 and higher, and by -fprofile-use and -fauto-profile. This pass distributes the initialization loops and generates a call to memset zero. and the initialization loop is transformed into a call to memset zero. Perform loop interchange outside of graphite.

This flag can improve cache performance on loop nest and allow further loop optimizations, like vectorization, to take place. Apply unroll and jam transformations on feasible loops. In a loop nest this unrolls the outer loop by some factor and fuses the resulting multiple inner loops.

Perform loop invariant motion on trees. This pass moves only invariants that are hard to handle at RTL level function calls, operations that expand to nontrivial sequences of insns. With -funswitch-loops it also moves operands of conditions that are invariant out of the loop, so that we can use just trivial invariantness analysis in loop unswitching. The pass also includes store motion. Create a canonical counter for number of iterations in loops for which determining number of iterations requires complicated analysis.

Later optimizations then may determine the number easily. Useful especially in connection with unrolling. Perform final value replacement. If a variable is modified in a loop in such a way that its value when exiting the loop can be determined using only its initial value and the number of loop iterations, replace uses of the final value by such a computation, provided it is sufficiently cheap.

This reduces data dependencies and may allow further simplifications. Perform induction variable optimizations strength reduction, induction variable merging and induction variable elimination on trees.

Parallelize loops, i. This is only possible for loops whose iterations are independent and can be arbitrarily reordered. The optimization is only profitable on multiprocessor machines, for loops that are CPU-intensive, rather than constrained e.

by memory bandwidth. This option implies -pthread , and thus is only supported on targets that have support for -pthread. Perform function-local points-to analysis on trees. This flag is enabled by default at -O1 and higher, except for -Og. Perform scalar replacement of aggregates. This pass replaces structure references with scalars to prevent committing structures to memory too early. Perform merging of narrow stores to consecutive memory addresses.

This pass merges contiguous stores of immediate values narrower than a word into fewer wider stores to reduce the number of instructions. This is enabled by default at -O2 and higher as well as -Os. This results in non-GIMPLE code, but gives the expanders much more complex trees to work on resulting in better RTL generation. This is enabled by default at -O1 and higher. Perform straight-line strength reduction on trees. This recognizes related expressions involving multiplications and replaces them by less expensive calculations when possible.

Perform vectorization on trees. This flag enables -ftree-loop-vectorize and -ftree-slp-vectorize if not explicitly specified. Perform loop vectorization on trees. This flag is enabled by default at -O2 and by -ftree-vectorize , -fprofile-use , and -fauto-profile.

Perform basic block vectorization on trees. Initialize automatic variables with either a pattern or with zeroes to increase the security and predictability of a program by preventing uninitialized memory disclosure and use.

With this option, GCC will also initialize any padding of automatic variables that have structure or union types to zeroes.

However, the current implementation cannot initialize automatic variables that are declared between the controlling expression and the first case of a switch statement. Using -Wtrivial-auto-var-init to report all such cases. You can control this behavior for a specific variable by using the variable attribute uninitialized see Variable Attributes. Alter the cost model used for vectorization. Alter the cost model used for vectorization of loops marked with the OpenMP simd directive.

All values of model have the same meaning as described in -fvect-cost-model and by default a cost model defined with -fvect-cost-model is used. Perform Value Range Propagation on trees.

This is similar to the constant propagation pass, but instead of values, ranges of values are propagated. This allows the optimizers to remove unnecessary range checks like array bound checks and null pointer checks. This is enabled by default at -O2 and higher. Null pointer check elimination is only done if -fdelete-null-pointer-checks is enabled.

Split paths leading to loop backedges. This can improve dead code elimination and common subexpression elimination. This is enabled by default at -O3 and above.

Enables expression of values of induction variables in later iterations of the unrolled loop using the value in the first iteration. This breaks long dependency chains, thus improving efficiency of the scheduling passes. A combination of -fweb and CSE is often sufficient to obtain the same effect. However, that is not reliable in cases where the loop body is more complicated than a single basic block. It also does not work at all on some architectures due to restrictions in the CSE pass.

With this option, the compiler creates multiple copies of some local variables when unrolling a loop, which can result in superior code. Inline parts of functions. Perform predictive commoning optimization, i. This option is enabled at level -O3. If supported by the target machine, generate instructions to prefetch memory to improve the performance of loops that access large arrays.

This option may generate better or worse code; results are highly dependent on the structure of loops within the source code. Do not substitute constants for known return value of formatted output functions such as sprintf , snprintf , vsprintf , and vsnprintf but not printf of fprintf.

This transformation allows GCC to optimize or even eliminate branches based on the known return value of these functions called with arguments that are either constant, or whose values are known to be in a range that makes determining the exact return value possible. For example, when -fprintf-return-value is in effect, both the branch and the body of the if statement but not the call to snprint can be optimized away when i is a bit or smaller integer because the return value is guaranteed to be at most 8.

The -fprintf-return-value option relies on other optimizations and yields best results with -O2 and above. It works in tandem with the -Wformat-overflow and -Wformat-truncation options. The -fprintf-return-value option is enabled by default. Disable any machine-specific peephole optimizations. The difference between -fno-peephole and -fno-peephole2 is in how they are implemented in the compiler; some targets use one, some use the other, a few use both.

GCC uses heuristics to guess branch probabilities if they are not provided by profiling feedback -fprofile-arcs. These heuristics are based on the control flow graph.

The default is -fguess-branch-probability at levels -O , -O2 , -O3 , -Os. Reorder basic blocks in the compiled function in order to reduce number of taken branches and improve code locality. Use the specified algorithm for basic block reordering. In addition to reordering basic blocks in the compiled function, in order to reduce number of taken branches, partitions hot and cold basic blocks into separate sections of the assembly and. o files, to improve paging and cache locality performance.

When -fsplit-stack is used this option is not enabled by default to avoid linker errors , but may be enabled explicitly if using a working linker.

Reorder functions in the object file in order to improve code locality. This is implemented by using special subsections. hot for most frequently executed functions and.

unlikely for unlikely executed functions. Reordering is done by the linker so object file format must support named sections and linker must place them in a reasonable way. Allow the compiler to assume the strictest aliasing rules applicable to the language being compiled. In particular, an object of one type is assumed never to reside at the same address as an object of a different type, unless the types are almost the same.

A character type may alias any other type. Even with -fstrict-aliasing , type-punning is allowed, provided the memory is accessed through the union type. So, the code above works as expected. See Structures unions enumerations and bit-fields implementation. However, this code might not:. Similarly, access by taking the address, casting the resulting pointer and dereferencing the result has undefined behavior, even if the cast uses a union type, e.

The -fstrict-aliasing option is enabled at levels -O2 , -O3 , -Os. Controls whether rules of -fstrict-aliasing are applied across function boundaries. Note that if multiple functions gets inlined into a single function the memory accesses are no longer considered to be crossing a function boundary. The -fipa-strict-aliasing option is enabled by default and is effective only in combination with -fstrict-aliasing.

Align the start of functions to the next power-of-two greater than or equal to n , skipping up to m -1 bytes. This ensures that at least the first m bytes of the function can be fetched by the CPU without crossing an n -byte alignment boundary.

If m2 is not specified, it defaults to n2. Some assemblers only support this flag when n is a power of two; in that case, it is rounded up. If n is not specified or is zero, use a machine-dependent default. The maximum allowed n option value is If this option is enabled, the compiler tries to avoid unnecessarily overaligning functions. It attempts to instruct the assembler to align by the amount specified by -falign-functions , but not to skip more bytes than the size of the function.

Parameters of this option are analogous to the -falign-functions option. If -falign-loops or -falign-jumps are applicable and are greater than this value, then their values are used instead.

Align loops to a power-of-two boundary. If the loops are executed many times, this makes up for any execution of the dummy padding instructions. Align branch targets to a power-of-two boundary, for branch targets where the targets can only be reached by jumping.

In this case, no dummy operations need be executed. Allow the compiler to perform optimizations that may introduce new data races on stores, without proving that the variable cannot be concurrently accessed by other threads. Does not affect optimization of local data. It is safe to use this option if it is known that global data will not be accessed by multiple threads. Examples of optimizations enabled by -fallow-store-data-races include hoisting or if-conversions that may cause a value that was already in memory to be re-written with that same value.

Such re-writing is safe in a single threaded context but may be unsafe in a multi-threaded context. Note that on some processors, if-conversions may be required in order to enable vectorization. This option is left for compatibility reasons. Do not reorder top-level functions, variables, and asm statements. Output them in the same order that they appear in the input file.

When this option is used, unreferenced static variables are not removed. This option is intended to support existing code that relies on a particular ordering. For new code, it is better to use attributes when possible. Additionally -fno-toplevel-reorder implies -fno-section-anchors. This also affects any such calls implicitly generated by the compiler. Constructs webs as commonly used for register allocation purposes and assign each web individual pseudo register.

This allows the register allocation pass to operate on pseudos directly, but also strengthens several other optimization passes, such as CSE, loop optimizer and trivial dead code remover. Assume that the current compilation unit represents the whole program being compiled. This option should not be used in combination with -flto. Instead relying on a linker plugin should provide safer and more precise information. This option runs the standard link-time optimizer.

When the object files are linked together, all the function bodies are read from these ELF sections and instantiated as if they had been part of the same translation unit. To use the link-time optimizer, -flto and optimization options should be specified at compile time and during the final link. It is recommended that you compile all the files participating in the same link with the same options and also specify those options at link time.

For example:. The first two invocations to GCC save a bytecode representation of GIMPLE into special ELF sections inside foo. o and bar. The final invocation reads the GIMPLE bytecode from foo. o , merges the two files into a single internal image, and compiles the result as usual. Since both foo. o are merged into a single image, this causes all the interprocedural analyses and optimizations in GCC to work across the two files as if they were a single one.

This means, for example, that the inliner is able to inline functions in bar. o into functions in foo. o and vice-versa. The above generates bytecode for foo. c and bar. c , merges them together into a single GIMPLE representation and optimizes them as usual to produce myprog. The important thing to keep in mind is that to enable link-time optimizations you need to use the GCC driver to perform the link step.

GCC automatically performs link-time optimization if any of the objects involved were compiled with the -flto command-line option. You can always override the automatic decision to do link-time optimization by passing -fno-lto to the link command.

To make whole program optimization effective, it is necessary to make certain whole program assumptions. The compiler needs to know what functions and variables can be accessed by libraries and runtime outside of the link-time optimized unit. When supported by the linker, the linker plugin see -fuse-linker-plugin passes information to the compiler about used and externally visible symbols. When the linker plugin is not available, -fwhole-program should be used to allow the compiler to make these assumptions, which leads to more aggressive optimization decisions.

When a file is compiled with -flto without -fuse-linker-plugin , the generated object file is larger than a regular object file because it contains GIMPLE bytecodes and the usual final code see -ffat-lto-objects.

This means that object files with LTO information can be linked as normal object files; if -fno-lto is passed to the linker, no interprocedural optimizations are applied. Note that when -fno-fat-lto-objects is enabled the compile stage is faster but you cannot perform a regular, non-LTO link on them.

When producing the final binary, GCC only applies link-time optimizations to those files that contain bytecode. Therefore, you can mix and match object files and libraries with GIMPLE bytecodes and final object code. GCC automatically selects which files to optimize in LTO mode and which files to link without further processing.

Generally, options specified at link time override those specified at compile time, although in some cases GCC attempts to infer link-time options from the settings used to compile the input files. If you do not specify an optimization level option -O at link time, then GCC uses the highest optimization level used when compiling the object files. Note that it is generally ineffective to specify an optimization level option only at link time and not at compile time, for two reasons.

First, compiling without optimization suppresses compiler passes that gather information needed for effective optimization at link time. Second, some early optimization passes can be performed only at compile time and not at link time.

There are some code generation flags preserved by GCC when generating bytecodes, as they need to be used during the final link. Currently, the following options and their settings are taken from the first object file that explicitly specifies them: -fcommon , -fexceptions , -fnon-call-exceptions , -fgnu-tm and all the -m target flags. The following options -fPIC , -fpic , -fpie and -fPIE are combined based on the following scheme:.

Certain ABI-changing flags are required to match in all compilation units, and trying to override this at link time with a conflicting value is ignored. This includes options such as -freg-struct-return and -fpcc-struct-return. Other options such as -ffp-contract , -fno-strict-overflow , -fwrapv , -fno-trapv or -fno-strict-aliasing are passed through to the link stage and merged conservatively for conflicting translation units.

You can override them at link time. Diagnostic options such as -Wstringop-overflow are passed through to the link stage and their setting matches that of the compile-step at function granularity. Note that this matters only for diagnostics emitted during optimization. Note that code transforms such as inlining can lead to warnings being enabled or disabled for regions if code not consistent with the setting at compile time.

When you need to pass options to the assembler via -Wa or -Xassembler make sure to either compile such translation units with -fno-lto or consistently use the same assembler options on all translation units. You can alternatively also specify assembler options at LTO link time. To enable debug info generation you need to supply -g at compile time. If any of the input files at link time were built with debug info generation enabled the link will enable debug info generation as well.

Any elaborate debug info settings like the dwarf level -gdwarf-5 need to be explicitly repeated at the linker command line and mixing different settings in different translation units is discouraged. If LTO encounters objects with C linkage declared with incompatible types in separate translation units to be linked together undefined behavior according to ISO C99 6.

The behavior is still undefined at run time. Similar diagnostics may be raised for other languages. Another feature of LTO is that it is possible to apply interprocedural optimizations on files written in different languages:. In general, when mixing languages in LTO mode, you should use the same link command options as when mixing languages in a regular non-LTO compilation. If object files containing GIMPLE bytecode are stored in a library archive, say libfoo.

a , it is possible to extract and use them in an LTO link if you are using a linker with plugin support. To create static libraries suitable for LTO, use gcc-ar and gcc-ranlib instead of ar and ranlib ; to show the symbols of object files with GIMPLE bytecode, use gcc-nm. We complete assignments from scratch to provide you with plagiarism free papers. Our professional team of writers ensures top-quality custom essay writing services.

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